Trait and Types Approaches to Personality

Trait and Types Approaches to spiritCritically evaluate the trace and slip approach/perspective of personality, drawing on relevant explore.This essay lead begin by giving a description of what personality is, before going on to critically evaluate trait and type approaches of personality.The precise rendering of personality has been a controversial issue over many years by various theorists. One definition of personality piece of ass be draw as the underlying causes of individual behaviour and experience within a person (Cloninger, 2000).Trait and type supposition is wholeness of many personality approaches and has been an powerful part of personality theory and research. The prefatory assumption of the trait and type approach is that people possess broad predispositions to respond in particular shipway (Pervin, 1993). Therefore, traits are the fundamental building blocks of personality because they produce consistent patterns in our behaviour. Allport and Odbert (1936, cited in Cloninger, 2000), found that the English dictionary lists 18,000 words referring to personality traits. It is sticky to admit which of these traits are actually basic and applicable to everyone and which ones are variations of other traits. In order to eliminate unnecessary traits, some researchers allow statistically examined which trait tons tend to be correlated. This is done by the use of questionnaires and from this, reckon analysis is carried out. Factor analysis is carried out by using a large human body of test items administered to many participants, which are then co varied. This enables the identification of groups , clusters or factors of related items.Cattell (1957) proposed 16 dominant personality symmetrys. Each of these were defined by a pair of adjectives, such(prenominal) as outgoing versus reserved, tense versus relaxed and suspicious versus trusting. However, later research by other investigators, managed to reduce this number even smaller. Norma n (1963, cited in Goldberg, 1990) found five major propertys of personality, often called the Big Five. This five-factor model is a descriptive classification of traits into broad do importants called neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience. His analysis relied largely upon factor analysis. Within these dimensions are lower berth-level traits such as, talkative versus silent and sociable versus reclusive, which come under the extroversion dimension. This model proposes that human personality can be fully described in terms of five dimensions, however in order to fully understand what an individuals personality is, the lower-level traits are need.Researchers such as Costa McCrae (1992) claim that the five-factor model is the best theory of personality.Nevertheless, a number of investigators have call downed that there whitethorn be even fewer underlining dimensions (e.g. Livneh and Livneh, cited in Gleitman, Fridlund Reisberg, 1 999). However, the most influential researcher is Eysenck (1967) who found two basic dimensions of personality. He named these introversion-extroversion and neuroticism (stable-unstable). The extrovert is sociable, impulsive and enjoys new experiences, while the introvert tends to be more solitary, cautious and slow to change (Eysenck, 1967). Neuroticism relates to emotional stability, and Eysenck (1967) states that neuroticism/emotional stability and extroversion/introversion are independent dimensions. Introverts and many neurotics have something in common, they are both unsociable and withdrawn, but their lack of sociability has different roots. Introverts are not afraid of social activities, they just dont same them, however, neurotically shy people keep to themselves through fear of joining in.In the 1970s, Eysenck added psychoticism onto his existing two dimension classification. People high on this dimension tend to be insensitive, uncaring about others and opposed to accep ted social custom (Pervin, 1993). This third dimension is similar to two of the Big Five dimensions, agreeableness and conscientiousness, and Eysenck regards them as being components of the psychoticism dimension. Although Eysenck (1967) does not include openness to experience in his approach, he argues that it is important because it is related to cognitive and educational traits, including intelligence. An alternative five-factor model was in any case proposed by Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Thornguist Kiers (1991, cited in Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Teta Kraft, 1993), and adds impulsive sensation seeking, aggression-hostility and activity to sociability and neuroticism-anxiety to the model.The Big five factor model has been challenged by Waller and Ben-Porath (1987, cited in McCrae and Costa, 1989), claiming that additional research is needed in order to relate the five-factor model to alternative personality systems. However, more research has been carried out by McCrae and Costa ( 1989), in which they provided evidence that the model can be used to organise the Murray needs measured by Jacksons (1974) Personality Research Form.Another criticism of the five-factor model comes from McAdams (1992), who claims that although this model may be an important one in the study of personality, it is far from being an integrative model of personality. He also states that because the five factors are so broad, trait scores may not be highly useful in the prediction of specific behaviour in particular situations (McAdams, 1992). However, Digman (1990), states that the five-factor models main aim was to be empirical and compatible with other major psychological theories, and this has been achieved.The Big five-factor theory and the three-factor theory seem to agree on two basic points. First, Cattells, (1967, cited in Zuckerman et al, 1993) 16-factor personality theory has too many dimensions. Research has also shown that these factors do not seem to be replicable across ge nder, age, or methods and many investigators have simply failed to find them. The second point is that in the five- and three-factor models, they both agree that two of the major factors are extraversion-introversion and neuroticism. However, there is less agreement on the lower level traits, as proposed by Norman (1963, cited in Gleitman, 1999).In an empirical analysis carried out by Zuckerman et al (1993), they found that there was a long deal of convergence among the major factors in the three-trait models, particularly the two five-factor models. Extroversion and neuroticism are fairly similar in all three models, notwithstanding differences in their components.Much research has been carried out in order to support Eysencks approach. Two questionnaires were developed to measure extroversion and introversion. One is called the Maudsley personality armoury and the other the Eysenck Personality Inventory, which includes a scale that detects individuals who are faking responses. An example of a question in these questionnaires would be, do you prefer reading to meeting people?. From the selective information obtained, they found that individual variations in introversion/extroversion reflect differences in neurophysiological functioning. Introverts are more easily aroused by events and more inhibit and inhibited than extroverts. In fact, several studies of identical and fraternal twins suggest that heredity plays a major part in their scores on this dimension (Shields, 1976, cited in Pervin, 1993). It was also found that people high on neuroticism tend to be emotionally susceptible and frequently complain of worry and anxiety, as well as bodily aches, such as headaches. It was suggested that individual differences was due to an inherited biological difference in nervous system functioning. Individuals high on neuroticism show a slower decrease in the stress response once the problem has gone and genetic factors contribute significantly to psychoticism (Per vin, 1993).In a study carried out by Barrett, Petrides, Eysenck Eysenck (1998), the factorial similarity of extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and social desirability were assessed using gender-specific data collected from 34 countries across the world. They used the Kaiser-Hunka Bianchini (KHB) surgery, however, this procedure was modified due to previous criticism of the validity of this procedure. Eysenck has suggested that it is necessary to collect data for cross-cultural comparisons between countries and cultures using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), as the main amount instrument. The main aim was to compare the factorial twist of the EPQ within each country, to that of a UK dataset. This comparison would establish whether there is universality of the psychometric scales of extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and social desirability.Eysenck and Eysenck (1985, cited in Barrett et al. 1998), claimed that extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and socia l desirability would prove to be universal across countries and cultures because these scales are based upon a biological theory of personality. Although social desirability has not been undertake in this way, Eysenck still claims that there will also be universality. The results found that the factors of extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and social desirability were strongly replicable across all of the 34 countries.The trait and type theory approach does seem to be effective in describing and providing evidence for personality. Generally in the study of personality, trait psychologists seek to discover the psychological dimensions along which people differ and the ways in which traits cluster within individuals the major focus being on enduring behaviour (Buss, 1989). The impact of experimental manipulations is not always investigated, because the focus is on the content of behaviour not the psychological process underlying the behaviour. This has been debated by many res earchers e.g. Mischel (1968, cited in Hjelle, 1992).An experiment by Fenigstein (1979, cited in Buss, 1989), investigated whether manipulations are crucial determinants of behaviour. He placed each participant (with different degrees of globe self-consciousness) in a waiting room with two other participants, who were experimental accomplices. In the control condition these accomplices responded to conversation by the participant, but did not respond in the experimental condition. This manipulation found that participants high in the public self-consciousness trait, reported high levels of discomfort and tended to avoid choosing the accomplices as subsequent partners in the second part of the experiment, compared to those participants low on this trait. This empirical research seems to suggest that traits do have an impact on behaviour, and experimental manipulations significantly influence behaviour (Buss, 1989).Another criticism of the trait theory approach is with the use of fact or analysis. The results obtained from this, relies heavily on the exact contents of the date set. Therefore, if the items included in the analysis are changed, the resulting factors may be significantly different. Consequently critics argue that it is difficult to claim that any single factor analysis allows us to identify the real dimensions of personality.In conclusion, it seems that the study of personality is not as clear discern as one would hope. Although there appears to be many similarities among the trait theorists, there are also differences between them. It is also important to point out that there are many other approaches and perspectives of personality behaviourist, social cognition and dynamic perspectives, which may provide a more complete understanding of personality. No one model seems to be appropriate in accounting for the whole theory of personality, but it seems apparent that each theorist does provide a valuable theory of personality.ReferencesBarrett, P.T. , Petrides, K. V., Eysenck, S. B. G. Eysenck, H. J. (1998). The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire An examination of the factorial similarity of P, E, N and L across 34 countries. Personality and Indiviudal Differences, 25, 805-819.Buss, A. H. (1989). Personality as traits. American Psychologist, 44, 1348-1378.Cattell, R. B. (1957). Personality and motivation social structure and measurement. New York Harcourt, Brace, WorldCloninger, S. C. (2000). 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